First Published: Nov 11, 2006
هُوَ
الَّذِي جَعَلَ الشَّمْسَ ضِيَاءً وَالْقَمَرَ نُورًا وَقَدَّرَهُ
مَنَازِلَ لِتَعْلَمُوا عَدَدَ السِّنِينَ وَالْحِسَابَ مَا خَلَقَ اللَّهُ
ذَلِكَ إِلَّا بِالْحَقِّ يُفَصِّلُ الْآيَاتِ لِقَوْمٍ يَعْلَمُونَ (يونس 5)
It
is He who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light
(of beauty), and measured out stages for it; that you may know the
number of years and the count (of time). Allah has not created this but
in truth. (Thus) does He explain His signs in detail, for those who
understand. (10:5)
The debate over the determination of the birth of the new crescent (Hilal)
has taken a new urgency in North America after the Fiqh Council of
North America (FCNA) announced, in August 2006, its new ruling (fatwa)
on the use of calculation for establishing the beginning of the Islamic
lunar month. The ruling established for the first time in recent
history astronomical calculations as the sole criteria for deciding the
birth of the new crescent.[1]
Thus for the first time we come face to face with the prospect of
confirming the beginning of Ramadan and Eids without the recurring
hassle and flare.
The debate over confirming the Hilal is an old one dating back to the second century of the Islamic era. The debate intensified in the second half of the last century as many Muslim scholars became concerned about the inconsistency of sighting reports and the fragmentation of Muslim communities over the determination of the first day of Ramadan and the two Eids. Although strong arguments were made several decades ago by illustrious scholars, such as Muhammad Mubarak and Ahmad Shakir, in support of replacing the practice of sighting the moon with astronomical calculation, Muslim communities, by and large, continued to follow the moon sighting tradition.The debate over how the new Islamic lunar month is to be decided transcends beyond just that of a debate in favor of one method over the other, and the transition from moon sighting to astronomical calculation is more than a transition from one juristic (fiqhi) position to another. The debate is, indeed, about how to read Islamic sources, and how to relate Islamic precepts to contemporary society; and the transition is about the ability of contemporary Muslim scholars to truly reclaim the authority of independent judgment (ijtihad), and hence build on the knowledge and achievements of early scholarship to reach better grounded consensus (ijma’).
FCNA’s ruling in favor of using astronomical calculation for determining the beginning of the Muslim lunar month provoked a strong response, and the American Muslim community continues to be divided over this issue.· Scholars on the two sides of the divide present arguments rooted in Islamic traditions, and often support their views by citing the same Qur’anic and Prophetic sources, or by referring to statements by early Muslim scholars.[2] It does not take much for an observer to realize that the division and disagreements are not about the sources themselves, but about the interpretations and rationalizations of those sources. The division is between scholars who place emphasis on the apparent meaning of the text (Zahir) and those who emphasize its intended meaning and purpose (maqsid).
FCNA’s ruling in favor of using astronomical calculation for determining the beginning of the Muslim lunar month provoked a strong response, and the American Muslim community continues to be divided over this issue.· Scholars on the two sides of the divide present arguments rooted in Islamic traditions, and often support their views by citing the same Qur’anic and Prophetic sources, or by referring to statements by early Muslim scholars.[2] It does not take much for an observer to realize that the division and disagreements are not about the sources themselves, but about the interpretations and rationalizations of those sources. The division is between scholars who place emphasis on the apparent meaning of the text (Zahir) and those who emphasize its intended meaning and purpose (maqsid).
The
tendency to split over interpretations has always been part of the
Muslim experience. It can be traced to the split between the companions
over the interpretation of the Prophet’s command to pray the asr prayer at Banu Qurayza:
حدثنا
عبد الله بن محمد بن أسماء حدثنا جويرية بن أسماء عن نافع عن ابن عمر رضي
الله عنهما قال قال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم يوم الأحزاب لا يصلين أحد
العصر إلا في بني قريظة فأدرك بعضهم العصر في الطريق فقال بعضهم لا نصلي
حتى نأتيها وقال بعضهم بل نصلي لم يرد منا ذلك فذكر ذلك للنبي صلى الله عليه وسلم فلم يعنف واحدا منهم (حديث متقف عليه(
·
Bukhari
reported on the authority of [Abdullah] Ibn Omar, may Allah be please
with both, who said that the Prophet, Allah’s mercy and peace be with
him, said on the day of the [battle of] Alliances: “No one should pray asr except in the [territories] of Banu Qurayzah.” Some were still on the road at the asr time and said: “we will not pray asr
until we reach it [Banu Qurayzah]. Others said: “we will indeed pray;
this is not what was intended.” The Prophet, Allah’s mercy and peace be
with him, was informed about [the disagreement], and he did not rebuke
any of them.[3]
Evidently,
some of the Prophet’s companions understood his statement literally and
continued their journey until they reached the territory of Banu
Qurayza, while others stopped on the way to pray asr on time.
It was also reported that the Prophet approved the actions of both,
signaling that differences in opinion are abound to arise, and that the ijtihad of one group does not invalidate that of another.
For
centuries, moon sighting was a better and more reliable method for
deciding the beginning of the Islamic lunar month. Today, with the
advancement of the science of astronomy, and the improvement of
computing tools, astronomical calculations provide a much superior
method, and are more in keeping with the Islamic requirements. Islam
requires that we base certain religious duties, including fasting
Ramadan and performing Hajj, on the lunar calendar, but does not regard
the act of deciding the beginning of the Islamic month a religious act per se.
The movement of the moon belongs to the natural order and its
determination can better be handled by astronomy, which can today
provide very precise calculation, and is by far more reliable and
certain than moon sighting.
Distinguishing Religious Obligations from the Natural Order
Is moon sighting an ibadah?
This question is a key for understanding the debate over replacing the
practice of moon sighting with that of astronomical calculation.
The
arguments for relying on sighting the new crescent as a means to
determining the Islamic calendar confound religious duties with the
empirical knowledge and practical skills required to identify the days
on which these religious duties commence. Observing Ramadan and
performing Hajj is ibadah, but observing the birth of the new
crescent to determine the beginning of the lunar month is not. The
latter relate to the human capacity for determining the beginning of the
lunar month, and it is a function of the observer’s scientific and
physical capacity to identify the moment of the birth of the new
crescent with increased precision. This capacity varies, needless to
say, with the knowledge of the position of the new crescent in the sky,
the sharpness of the eye-sight of the observer, the access to refined
tools, the climatic conditions, etc.
The
Qur’an commands Muslims to fast the entire month of Ramadan, and to
perform the Hajj. And the Prophet, Allah’s mercy and peace be with him,
taught Muslims to perform Hajj during the month of Dhu Alhijja, and to celebrate the first of Shawwal and the tenth of Dhu Alhijja.
Although
some Muslims tried to root the practice of moon sighting, particularly
for the month of Ramadan, in the Qur’anic injunctions, on a closer
examination one finds that the Qur’an only requires that Muslims observe
fasting during the month. Two verses are relevant in this regard:
"فمن شهد منكم الشهر فليصمه" ·
“So whoever witnesses the month, let him fast” (2:185)
Some scholars, mostly contemporary, use this verse as evidence for the requirement of moon sighting. The term shahida, translated here as “witness,” means, they insist, to “see it with one’s eyes.”[4] However, on examining the Qur’anic usage of the term, it becomes evident that the Qur’an does not confine “shahida” to eye witnessing, but also uses it in reference to expert witnessing. In Surat Yusuf, for example, the Qur’an uses the term “shahida”
to refer to an act of witnessing in which the witness provides a
testimony based on rational argument, rather than actual eye-witnessing:
قال هي راودتني عن نفسي، وشهد شاهد من أهلها إن كان قميصه قد من قبل فصدقت وهو من الكاذبين، وإن كان قميصه قد من دبر فكذبت وهو من الصادقين. (يوسف 26-27)
He
said: "It was she that sought to seduce me, from my (true) self." And
one of her household bore witness, (thus) "If it be that his shirt is
torn from the front, then is her tale true, and he is a liar! But if it be that his shirt is torn from the back, then is she the liar, and he is telling the truth! (12:26-7)
The
witness to whom these verses refer, who testified in the case of
Prophet Yusuf and the king’s wife, was not present in person when the
disputed incident took place. Rather, his testimony was a rational
argument based on his knowledge of the habitual behavior and the
physical limitations of human beings. The witness testified that if
Yusuf’s shirt was torn from the back, this would then be good evidence
that the king’s wife was lying as she would have made an attempt to grab
him from the back as he ran away from her. But if his shirt was torn
from the front, this would be evidence that she was trying to defend
herself against his unwanted advances, and he would be the person who
lied.
The other Qur’anic verse relevant to the determination of the new lunar month refers to the crescent (hilal), and has been cited by scholars who favor sighting the Moon, as well as scholars who support astronomical calculations:
يَسْأَلُونَكَ عَنِ الْأَهِلَّةِ قُلْ هِيَ مَوَاقِيتُ لِلنَّاسِ وَالْحَجِّ (البقرة 189)
They
ask you concerning the crescents. Say: They are but signs to mark fixed
periods of time in (the affairs of) men, and for Hajj. (2:189)
Those
who require moon sighting see in the Qur’anic reference to the crescent
an evidence to support their claims, while those who permit calculation
take the correlation between the crescent and the infinite form of the
verb “time,” i.e. mawaqit, in the above verse as an additional
indication that the crescent birth may be calculated. The word “mawaqit”
connotes “measure” (taqdir), and refers to a specific time or place for performing a required act.[5]
What is clear, though, is that the above ayah
(verse) is inconclusive, one way or the other, in settling the dispute
between those who favor moon sighting and those who privilege
calculation.
In several ayahs, the Qur’an relates the movement of the sun and the moon with the human ability to learn the passage of time and measure it:
هُوَ
الَّذِي جَعَلَ الشَّمْسَ ضِيَاءً وَالْقَمَرَ نُورًا وَقَدَّرَهُ
مَنَازِلَ لِتَعْلَمُوا عَدَدَ السِّنِينَ وَالْحِسَابَ مَا خَلَقَ اللَّهُ
ذَلِكَ إِلَّا بِالْحَقِّ يُفَصِّلُ الْآيَاتِ لِقَوْمٍ يَعْلَمُونَ (يونس 5)
It
is He who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light
(of beauty), and measured out stages for it; that you may know the
number of years and the count (of time). Allah has not created this but
in truth. (Thus) does He explain His signs in detail, for those who
understand. (10:5)
·
فَالِقُ
الْإِصْبَاحِ وَجَعَلَ اللَّيْلَ سَكَنًا وَالشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَ
حُسْبَانًا ذَلِكَ تَقْدِيرُ الْعَزِيزِ الْعَلِيمِ (الأنعام 96)
He
it is that cleaves the daybreak (from the dark): He makes the night for
rest and tranquility, and the sun and moon for the reckoning [of time] (husban), such is His judgment and ordering, the Exalted in Power, the Omniscient. (6:96)
·
وَجَعَلْنَا
اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ آيَتَيْنِ فَمَحَوْنَا آيَةَ اللَّيْلِ
وَجَعَلْنَا آيَةَ النَّهَارِ مُبْصِرَةً لِتَبْتَغُوا فَضْلًا مِنْ
رَبِّكُمْ وَلِتَعْلَمُوا عَدَدَ السِّنِينَ وَالْحِسَابَ وَكُلَّ شَيْءٍ
فَصَّلْنَاهُ تَفْصِيلًا (الإسراء 12)
We
have made the night and the day as two signs; the sign of the night
have We obscured, while the sign of the day We have made to enlighten
you; that you may seek bounty from your Lord, and that you may know the
number and count of the years: all things have We explained in detail.
(17: 12)
Evidently,
the Qur’an does not consider sighting of the new crescent an act of
worship that has to be performed for its own sake, but states clearly
that the moon and the sun are means through which people can learn of
the passage of time, and can count and measure the days, months, and
years. While the words “hisban” and “hisab” have affinity with
such words: count, measure, and calculation, it is fair to say that the
Qur’an does not, however, provide any conclusive evidence one way or the
other.
It
is abundantly clear that while the Qur’an places fasting of Ramadan and
performing of Hajj as religious obligations, it considers the sun and
moon movements as part of the natural order. It follows, therefore, that
fasting and Hajj obligations must be studied in accordance with shari’ah sciences, while the elaboration of the moon movement must be entrusted to astronomers and the science of astronomy.
If
the distinction between these two areas of knowledge is confirmed, then
the only reason for moon sighting to be favored over astronomical
calculation is when the former is more certain in determining the birth
of the new crescent than the latter. On the other hand, the faqih
(Muslim jurist) must follow the calculation of the astronomer at any
time the latter provides a higher level of certainty. As I will show
below, the lack of confidence in the precision of the calculation of the
astronomer was a main hindrance for relying on astronomical
calculations by the bulk of early Muslim jurists.
However,
before we examine the key positions of early Muslim scholars, let us
see whether the Prophetic tradition require Muslims to rely exclusively
on moon sighting.
The Prophetic Tradition on Moon Sighting
Scholars
who insist that sighting the waxing crescent is the only acceptable way
for determining Ramadan rely on the Prophet’s injunction that Muslims
should see the crescent to begin their fasting and see the next crescent
to conclude their fasting. The various hadiths cited in this regard follow variations of the following two authentic hadiths:
روى الإمام البخاري في صحيحه من طريق آخر عبد الله بن عمر رضي الله عنهما أن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال الشهر تسع وعشرون ليلة فلا تصوموا حتى تروه فإن غم عليكم فأكملوا العدة ثلاثين.
·
Imam Bukhari reported in his Sahih
through a different chain of narrators on the authority of Abdullah bin
Omar, may Allah be pleased with both, that the Prophet, Allah’s mercy
and peace be with him, said: The month is twenty nine days, so do not
fast until you see it [the crescent], but if it was obscured from you
then complete your count to thirty.[6]
روى
البخاري ومسلم في عن عبد الله بن عمر رضي الله عنهما أن رسول الله صلى
الله عليه وسلم ذكر رمضان فقال لا تصوموا حتى تروا الهلال ولا تفطروا حتى تروه فإن غم عليكم فاقدروا له.
·
Bukhari and Muslim reported in their Sahihs
on the authority of Abdullah bin Omar, may Allah be pleased with both,
that the Prophet, Allah’s mercy and peace be with him, said: Do not fast
until you see the crescent and do not end your fast until you see it,
but if it was obscured from you then estimate for it.[7]
It is important to recall the conclusion we reached in the previous section, that while the act of fasting is an ibadah,
the act of determining the beginning of the lunar month is an act of
knowledge of the natural order. The Prophet himself asked Muslims to
rely on their own practical knowledge in matters that relate to the
natural order.
حدثنا
عبد الصمد حدثنا حماد عن ثابت عن أنس قال: سمع رسول الله صلى الله عليه
وسلم أصواتا فقال ما هذا قالوا يلقحون النخل فقال لو تركوه فلم يلقحوه لصلح
فتركوه فلم يلقحوه فخرج شيصا فقال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم ما لكم قالوا تركوه لما قلت فقال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم إذا كان شيء من أمر دنياكم فأنتم أعلم به فإذا كان من أمر دينكم فإلي
·
Ahmed reported in his Musnad
on the authority of Anas bin Malik that the Prophet, Allah’s mercy and
peace be with him, heard noise and asked about the source, and was told
that it [resulted from the process of] the pollination of palm trees. He
said: “if they left [the palms] alone without pollination they would be
fine, and so they did. The next year the palms produced infertile
dates. When the Prophet, Allah’s mercy and peace be with him, inquired
about the reason, they told him that they did not pollinate as he
suggested. He then said: If the question relates to your worldly matters
(dunyakum), you would know better about it, but if it relates to your religion (dinakum), then to me it belongs.[8]
In fact, the Prophet himself shared with his companions the reason for his specific directive to rely on moon sighting. In a hadith
that was reported by Bukhari and Muslim on the authority of Abdullah
bin Omar, the Prophet, Allah’s mercy and peace be with him, said:
إِنَّا أُمَّةٌ أُمِّيَّةٌ لَا نَكْتُبُ وَلَا نَحْسُبُ الشَّهْرُ هَكَذَا وَهَكَذَا يَعْنِي مَرَّةً تِسْعَةً وَعِشْرِينَ وَمَرَّةً ثَلَاثِين
We
are illiterate community that does not write or calculate; month is
this much and this much, indicating with his fingers 29 days once and 30
days once.
In
the absence of astronomers who have the know-how and the tools to
determine with accuracy the beginning of the lunar month, moon sighting
was the only tool available for the early Muslim community.[9] The absence of the scientific knowledge for calculating the beginning of the month was the ‘illah (efficient reason) for the Prophet’s directive for sighting the moon, and the removal of the ‘illah will render the directive inapplicable. It is a well established principle of fiqh (qa’ida fiqhiyah) that the rule or judgment is dependent on its ‘illah, and revolves around it, when the ‘illah is no longer in operation, the rule is no longer applicable:
الحكم مقرون بعلته يدور معها وجودا وعدما
The rule is interconnected with its efficient reason, and revolves around it in both its presence and absence.[10]
The claim[11]
that the Prophet, Allah’s mercy and peace be with him, chose moon
sighting over calculation because he chose not to use advanced
astronomical knowledge already acquired by the pre-Islamic Arabs is
unfounded. The assertion that pre-Islamic Arabs have had access to
astronomical knowledge is refuted by both the above hadith and
historical facts. Yes, astronomy was known by the ancient Egyptians and
Greeks prior to Islam, but this knowledge was limited, and was not
spread throughout the pre-Islamic world. There is no historical account
of established astronomers in the Arabian Peninsula. As we will see in
the next section, calculation of the new moon was often part of the
pseudo-science of astrology. Many Muslim jurists believed that early
astronomers were magicians and fortunetellers. Although astronomy made
great strides with the contributions of Muslim astronomers such as
Khawarizmi, Bayruni, and Altusi, predicting the moon movements with
precision had to wait until the late nineteenth century. A major
complaint by early Muslim scholars was that the astronomers of their
times did not provide accurate predications, and that their predications
had a margin of error of up to two days.
It is also true that pre-Islamic Arabs practiced intercalation (nasi’),
whereby they moved the months around to avoid their obligation to
observe the Sacred Months. But the practice was based on irresponsible
tinkering, rather than an establish science.
إِنَّمَا
النَّسِيءُ زِيَادَةٌ فِي الْكُفْرِ يُضَلُّ بِهِ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا
يُحِلُّونَهُ عَامًا وَيُحَرِّمُونَهُ عَامًا لِيُوَاطِئُوا عِدَّةَ مَا
حَرَّمَ اللَّهُ فَيُحِلُّوا مَا حَرَّمَ اللَّهُ زُيِّنَ لَهُمْ سُوءُ
أَعْمَالِهِمْ وَاللَّهُ لَا يَهْدِي الْقَوْمَ الْكَافِرِينَ (التوبة 37)
Verily
intercalation (nasi’) is an increase in disbelief: the disbelievers are
led to wrong thereby: for they make it lawful one year, and forbidden
it another year, in order to adjust the number of months forbidden by
Allah and make such forbidden ones lawful. The evil of their course
seems pleasing to them. But Allah guides not those who reject Faith.
(9:37)
The
Qur’an has, indeed, put an end to the practice of intercalation, but
this cannot be used by any stretch of imagination as ground to reject
astronomical calculations.
The Shifting Ground of Consensus
Perhaps
the most serious challenge to contemporary scholars who advocate
astronomical calculation is the historically established consensus (ijma’)
among early Muslim scholars on this issue. Early scholars, by and
large, rejected calculation and agreed on moon sighting as the only
acceptable way for determining the beginning of the new lunar month.
However, when the facts upon which an early ijma’ is acquired have changed, the ijma’ loses both certainty and authority. The consensus reached early Muslim jurists on rejecting astronomical methods resulted from the lack of any clear line of demarcation between astronomy and astrology. Most early Muslim scholars equated astronomy with magic and fortunetelling. A quick review of the understanding of leading Muslim jurists reveals this serious confusion.
Al-Sarakhsi,
a leading Hanafi jurist, argued against calculation on the basis that
it was done by an astrologists and fortunetellers:[12]
ومنهم من قال يرجع إلى قول أهل الحساب عند الاشتباه , وهذا بعيد فإن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: "من أتى كاهنا· أو عرافا وصدقه بما يقول فقد كفر بما أنزل على محمد."
·
Among them those who say: we should consult with the people of calculation (hisab)
when we are uncertain [about the birth of the new crescent]. This is a
far cry because the Prophet, Allah’s mercy and peace be with him, said:
“whoever consults with a magician or fortuneteller and believed them in
what they said, he has rejected what was revealed to Muhammad.”
Ibn Qudamah cites the same reason for rejecting calculation, as he evidently confuses calculation with fortunetelling:[13]
لو بنى على قول المنجمين وأهل المعرفة بالحساب , فوافق الصواب , لم يصح صومه , وإن كثرت إصابتهم،· لأنه ليس بدليل شرعي يجوز البناء عليه , ولا العمل به , فكان وجوده كعدمه
·
If
the determination [of birth of the crescent] was based on the sayings
of the fortunetellers and those who know calculation, and if their
sayings were correct, his fasting was still invalid, even if they were
correct frequently, because this is not based on an evidence acceptable
by shari’ah to rely on or to follow: its presence and absence are the same.
Ibn
Taymiyyah, who is often cited by contemporary authors opposed to
calculation, indicated clearly that his objection for the use of
astronomical calculation stemmed partially from the fact that the
calculation lacks the accuracy and reliability needed to decide with
certainty the birth of the new lunar month. He gives us a deep insight
into the state of astronomy of his time in his voluminous work,
Al-fatawa al-kubra:[14]
والمعتمد على الحساب في الهلال، كما أنه ضال في الشريعة، مبتدع في الدين، فهو مخطئ في العقل وعلم الحساب. فإن العلماء بالهيئة يعرفون أن الرؤية لا تنضبط بأمر حسابي، وإنما غاية الحساب منهم إذا عدل أن يعرف كم بين الهلال والشمس من درجة وقت الغروب مثلا؛ لكن الرؤية ليست مضبوطة بدرجات محدودة، فإنها تختلف باختلاف حدة النظر وكلاله، وارتفاع المكان الذي يتراءى فيه الهلال، وانخفاضه، وباختلاف صفاء الجو وكدره. وقد يراه بعض الناس لثماني درجات، وآخر لا يراه لثنتي عشرة درجة؛ ولهذا تنازع أهل الحساب في قوس الرؤية تنازعا مضطربا , وأئمتهم : كبطليموس , لم يتكلموا في ذلك بحرف، لأن ذلك لا يقوم عليه دليل حسابي. وإنما يتكلم فيه بعض متأخريهم، مثل كوشياز الديلمي، وأمثاله. لما رأوا الشريعة علقت الأحكام بالهلال، فرأوا الحساب طريقا تنضبط فيه الرؤية , وليست طريقة مستقيمة , ولا معتدلة , بل خطأها كثير , وقد جرب , وهم يختلفون كثيرا: هل يرى؟ أم لا يرى؟ وسبب ذلك : أنهم ضبطوا بالحساب ما لا يعلم بالحساب، فأخطئوا طريق الصواب
·
The person who relies on calculation (hisab) for the birth of the crescent (Hilal), in addition to being in error in matters of shari’ah
and innovator in religion, is mistaken in matters of reason and
calculation. For the scholars of physics know that sighting the moon
cannot follow mathematical formula. The best they can do in way of
calculation is, for instance, to estimate the distance between the
crescent and the sun at the time of sunset. Sighting the moon cannot,
however, be determined with precise angulations, because it varies with
the sight sharpness, the altitude of the observatory, and weather
conditions. Some people can see it at 8 degrees, while others at 12
degrees. For this reason, the people of calculations are in dispute over
the arc of observation a great deal. The leading among them, such as
Ptolemy, never addressed the question because it is not subject to any
mathematical rendering. The latter [astronomers], such as Koshiaz
al-Daylami mentioned it as they realized that shari’ah has
based the ruling on moon sighting, so they thought that calculation can
guide sighting. But this is not a sound and measured method, as it has
many flaws. The [method] has been tried, leading to many disagreements:
can it be seen or cannot? The reason for that is that they have tried to
predict through calculation that which cannot be known by calculation,
and hence they mistaken the true way.
Other
early jurists have repeatedly objected to the use calculation by
pointing out to the speculative and imprecise nature of calculation, and
by equating astronomy with astrology and fortunetelling.[15]
It
is not difficult to understand why Ibn Taymiyyah, or any other scholar
for that matter, would count out imprecise and inaccurate method for
deciding on the birth of the new Moon. It is disturbing, though, to see
contemporary jurists espouse the same position when modern astronomy is
now capable of providing a high degree of precision.
Despite
the lack of confidence in the precision and accuracy of astronomical
calculations, there were considerable opinions among early jurists that
favored and allowed calculation as a viable alternative during
adversarial weather conditions, advanced by such leading scholars as
Al-Shafi’i, Ibn Sarij al-Shafi’i, Ibn Qutaybah, Mutarif bin Abdullah
al-Shakhir, as reported by Ibn Zar’ah and al-Nawawi. These opinions,
which received significant following during the first five centuries of
Islam, were subsequently discounted by the latter-day scholars, who
formulated a new consensus that completely rejected calculation and
insisted on moon sighting.[16]
Abu
Zar’ah identified another reason as to why astronomical calculation was
not endorsed by early jurists. Quoting al-Mazari, he writes:
قال المازري عن الجمهور ولا يجوز أن يكون المراد حساب المنجمين؛ لأن الناس لو كلفوا به ضاق عليهم؛ لأنه لا يعرفه إلا أفراد والشرع إنما يعرف الناس بما يعرفه جماهيرهم.
Al-Mazari, referring to the opinion accepted by the majority of scholars (jumhur),
said: calculation cannot rely on what the astrologists produce, because
if this was required from people it would have placed great burden on
them; this is because [calculation] is known to few people, and the shari’ah requires what is known to the majority.[17]
ومن قال بحساب المنازل فقوله مردود بقوله صلى الله عليه وسلم في الصحيحين: "إِنَّا أُمَّةٌ أُمِّيَّةٌ لَا نَكْتُبُ وَلَا نَحْسُبُ الشَّهْرُ هَكَذَا وَهَكَذَا." الحديث. قالوا: ولأن الناس لو كلفوا بذلك ضاق عليهم، لأنه لا يعرف الحساب إلا أفراد من الناس في البلدان الكبار.Whoever argues for the calculation of the moon mansions, his argument is refuted by the saying of the Prophet, Allah’s mercy and peace be with him, “We are illiterate community that does not write or calculate; month is this much and this much,” the hadith. The [majority] says: This is also because if people were required to do it, they will find it cumbersome, since few individuals from big towns know calculation.
It
should have become evident by now that the consensus that was reached
towards the sixth century of Islam was greatly influenced by the state
of the science of astronomy, as well as the lack of direct access by the
scattered Muslim villages and towns to reliable astronomers. Four
elements of this consensus are of particular interest to contemporary
scholars:
1. Astronomy, and its corollary science of mathematics, was considerably
less developed and mathematical precision was still lacking around the
time the consensus against calculation was reached. This is also
apparent in the fact that many Muslim jurists equated astronomy with
astrology and fortunetelling.
2. Even with the willingness of eminent Muslim scholars to use calculation
during obscure days, the fact that few people in big towns mastered the
art of calculation has compelled Muslim jurists to reject calculation
to avoid creating undue hardship for those who lived in small cities and
towns, thus have had no access to astronomical calculations.
3. Communication and transportation were not advanced enough to allow
consultation and exchange of information in a timely fashion across the
vast expands of Muslim lands.
4. The desire to keep central authority away from imposing a particular fiqhi
opinion adopted by a particular school on the rest of the Muslim
society was another factor in discounting astronomical calculations.
Al-Dhahabi reveals this concern in Siyar al-Alam when he refers
to the tragedy that struck the Qadi of Burqah in North Africa when he
objected to Al-Mansour, the ‘Ubaydi Caliph, and refused to follow his
decision to follow calculation, and chose to stick to the opinion of his
maliki school of fiqh. He was executed for refusing to acknowledge and support Al-Mansour’s ruling.[19]
None
of the above factors that influenced early Muslim scholars who opposed
calculation is in operation today: (1) Astronomy, as we will see in the
next section, has developed into an advance science, employing advanced
technologies, and providing accurate and precise predications of
celestial body movements; (2) scientific information and knowledge is
fairly widespread and, with the availability of advanced means of
communication, it can be shared expeditiously across the globe; and (3)
Muslim communities do follow decisions made by relevant authorities
within the body politic to which they belong.
The Question of Certainty
One
central and decisive factor in deciding between calculation and moon
sighting concerns the question of certainty: which of the two methods
provides a higher degree of certainty and confidence?
On
its face value, the choice seems to be between the certainty of seeing
and that of calculating. The question may be formulated, initially, as:
Which method is more certain for verifying an empirical reality, a
direct observation or mathematical calculation?
To
simplify the question and reduce it to its essential elements, it would
help to consider a straightforward example. If the empirical reality to
be verified was the determination of the time at which an object (say a
stone) that was thrown from the top of a building would hit the ground,
then both methods would enjoy a similar degree of certainty. A trained
timekeeper would be able to provide as close measurement of the time of
the impact as would a mathematician who has knowledge of the building
height. However, if the person who was asked to measure the time of
impact was a novice observer, or the degree of accuracy required was
raised to a split of a second, then the mathematician would predictably
provide more reliable results.
When
we come to consider a more complex empirical reality, such as the
beginning of the lunar month, which is a function of the complex
movement of the earth, the Moon, and the Sun, calculation becomes
considerably more elaborate and intricate. Yet, with all its complexity,
astronomical calculations are done with a great precision, a precision
that cannot be matched by any level of experience acquired by the human
observer. To understand the nature of this complexity, let us break it
down to its constituting components.
The complexity in deciding the beginning of new lunar month stems from four basic factors:
1.
The complexity of the movement of the moon in relation to both the
earth and the sun, and the degree of precision of the mathematical
formula used to calculate the moment of conjecture;
2. The
size and brightness of the lunar crescent, which depends on the
apparent angular distance between the centers of the moon and the Sun.
This distance is what astronomers call the elongation of the moon from
the Sun.
3.·
Sky conditions, including air density and humidity, the presence of
objects in the sky that obscure the young crescent. In recent times, the
increase in the level of air pollutants, particularly around cities,
has impacted negatively sky conditions.
4.
The observer’s situation and conditions, including location,
experience, and preparation. An observer who is located at low latitude
and high altitude, and who knows where and when to look for the waxing
crescent has a better chance of observing the new Moon.
The
first two factors, which relate to astronomical knowledge, have
improved greatly over the last two centuries. Today, astronomers can
calculate with great precision the date and time of conjuncture, i.e.
the birth of the new Moon. Similarly, the impact of elongation on the
visibility of the new moon (more accurately the waxing crescent) is estimated at 8.5 to 10 degrees for the aided eye, and 10 to 15 degrees for the unaided eye.[20]
The
latter factors that relate to the conditions of the sky and the
observers have deteriorated markedly. Muslims do not only live in middle
latitude regions of mostly clear sky—as was the case in the early years
of Islam—but also in high latitude regions, and in areas of high
humidity and frequent rain. The sky conditions have worsened in most
inhabited regions.
Observation
of the new moon is quite disturbing in countries where Muslims do not
employ the service of qualified observers using advance tools and
facilities. Communities in the United States, for instance, rely on
claims by ordinary Muslims with limited experience and astronomical
knowledge. Even in Muslim countries where fairly advanced facilities are
available, religious authorities accept the sighting of laymen with
little or no training.
It
must be asserted, therefore, that astronomical calculations provide a
higher degree of certainty than an actual moon sighting by the human
eye. For while astronomical calculations provide a precise date and time
of the birth of the new Moon, sighing the moon produces, even with the
use of advanced telescopes, less accurate and reliable results.
Yet
the actual choice is not one in which we are asked to choose between
astronomical calculation and moon sighting. The choice is essentially
between calculations and individual testimonies. For several centuries,
the Hanafi school of fiqh required that every qualified person
must go to open fields outside his village or town to observe the new
Moon. Other school of fiqh required two qualified witnesses, in
some cases one, to verify the actual sighting of the Moon. The group
requirement was intended to establish tawatur (the multiplicity of the sources) to ensure that the reported sighting is certain (qat’i), and hence to avoid the uncertainty (zanni) of individual reports.
The Hanafi school ultimately abandoned the group requirement, and
followed the practice of verifying the sighting with two witnesses.
Those
who insist that Muslims abandon astronomical calculation and rely on
individual testimonies are in actuality asking Muslims to abandon the
certainty of reliable knowledge, for the inconsistency of unverifiable
individual reports. Individual reports, every student of fiqh knows, produce uncertain knowledge (ma’rifah zaniyah).
This is amply illustrated by the established records of moon sighting
testimonies. These testimonies have been exceedingly inconsistent, and
have resulted in numerous contradictions and reversals.[21]
The Imperative to Seek Sound Knowledge and Greater Good
As illustrate above, there is an ample evidence to convince anyone who is familiar with both shari’ah
injunctions and contemporary astronomy that astronomical calculations
provide a more reliable and certain approach for determining the
beginning of the Islamic lunar calendar. The fact that contemporary
Muslim scholars are reluctant to embrace this certainty underscores the
challenges facing contemporary Muslim scholarship.
Many
Muslim jurists are beholden to a historical consensus, even though the
foundation of this consensus has shifted drastically. Early Muslim
scholars had good reasons to reject the method of astronomical
calculations, but it is no longer acceptable to question the certainty
of this method. Rather than standing comfortably on a consensus whose
foundation has shifted, it is about time that the Muslim community
shifts its consensus and set it on a new and sounder foundation. Muslim
jurists owe it to the traditions of Islamic learning, that have always
brought a balanced synthesis between shari’ah and science, to embrace more reliable methods for deciding with certainty the beginning of the Islamic month.
There
are still others who have grown accustomed to the anticipation and
excitement surrounding the “rituals” of moon sighting, and who·regret
the prospect of being asked to give up the·opportunity to·wonder·at the
majesty of Allah's creation.· The Qur'an enjoins us, indeed, to
constantly engage·with Allah's creation—to observe and ponder His signs
in our own human existence and in the universe, to watch the changing
seasons, to consider the alteration of day and night, and much more.· We
must be in touch with the natural world to be reminded of Allah's
creative power and the beauty and majesty of His creation, and this can
be an important source for spiritual renewal. Yet this exercise must not
be confined to, or imposed on, the question of deciding the beginning
of the Islamic lunar month. The vast majority of Muslims desires
accurate information on the new crescent, and is neither in a position
to actively and effectively participate in moon sighting, nor are they
required to do so. Those who find moon sighting spiritually uplifting
owe it to every Muslim in the world to place the certainty of knowledge
and the wellbeing of the ummah over and above personal fulfillments.[22]
The
Fiqh Council of North America’s decision to formally adopt astronomical
calculation represents a major step forward in overcoming historical
inertia. Although the decision of the FCNA has not so far brought about a
consensus among North American Muslims, it has set the foundation for
the development of a position that can potentially bring a new consensus
in deciding the beginning of Ramadan and the two Eids for the world-wide Muslim community.
NOTES
[1] See the full text of the fatwa at (http://www.fiqhcouncil.org/articles/Lunar_Calendar.html,
accessed on November 5, 2006). FCNA has also produced a video in which
FCNA chairman, Dr. Muzammil Siddiqui, discussed the basis of the fatwa,
see http://www.fiqhcouncil.org/articles/video.html
[2]
In addition to the FCNA’s statement on the Islamic Lunar Calendar, two
elaborate papers are presented by two North American scholars on this
issue. The first one was authored by Zulfiqar Ali Shah (http://www.isna.net/fileadmin/_temp_/FIQH/Calculations-Final%20_2_.pdf) and the other by Hamza Yusuf, Cesarean Moon Births (http://www.zaytuna.org/articleDetails.asp?articleID=100,
accessed on November 8, 2006). Shaykh. Zulfiqar’s paper argued for
adopting astronomical calculation, while Shaykh Hamza’s paper adopted
the traditional position, which favors moon sighting.
[3] The hadith was reported on the authority of Abdullah bin Omar in Sahih Bukhari, the book of maghazi (morales), no. 3804.
[10] For elaboration on this point, please see Abu Ishaq Al-Shatibi, Al-Muwafaqat, vol. 3, pp. 43-52, and 78-81.
[15] See also Al-Jassas, Ahkam al-Qur’an, vol. 1, pp.279; Al-Shanqiti, Adwa’ al-bayan, vol. 6., p. 347; and Abu Zar’ah al-Irqai, Tarh al-Tathrib, vol. 4. p. 112.
[20] See the Appendix
for discussion on the calculation method adopted by FCNA. US Naval
Observatory asserts that the date and time of the new lunar month can be
predicted with precision, and elaborates on the impact of elongation on
its visibility. See the article “Crescent Moon Visibility and the
Islamic Calendar,” (http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/islamic.html, accessed on Tuesday, November 07, 2006). See also Mohammad Ilyas,· A Modern Guide to Astronomical Calculations of Islamic Calendar, Times, and Qibla (Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia: Berita Publishing, 1984). Khalid Shaukat has also
done extensive work on this question. His work can be accessed through
his website http://www.moonsighting.com)
[21]
Khalid Shaukat lists on his website (moonsighting.com) and extensive
list of mistaken sightings of the moon, which provide a practical
illustration of both imprecision of moon sighting, and the inconsistency
of testimonies and reports.
[22]
In addition to being less accurate, moon sighting has created a lot of
hardship, particularly to Muslims in North America. In the eastern and
northern parts of North America the hilalis usually
unsightable, residents of these areas therefore simply have to wait
until late into the night checking Islamic websites or waiting for a
phone call.· Their "moon sighting" is a message received by the most
modern of technologies, and they are exhausted on Eid morning after waiting late into the night for sighting results from the western half of the continent.
Appendix
A Note on the Criteria Adopted by the FCNA for
Deciding the Birth of the New Crescent Moon
Fiqh Council of North America (FCNA) has adopted an Islamic Calendar·based on the following criteria:
1. Astronomical
calculations will be used to determine the beginning of the Islamic
lunar months with the consideration of the sightability of the crescent
anywhere on the globe.
2. To
determine a lunar Islamic calendar, a conventional point of reference
must be used. The International Date Line (IDL) or the Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT) may be used.
3. The
new Islamic Lunar month begins at sunset of the day when the
conjunction occurs before 12:00 Noon GMT. If the conjunction occurs
after 12:00 UT, then the month begins at sunset of the next day. The
moon born before 12:00 Noon UT will be 18+ hours (or more) old at a
point just East of IDL at local sunset. This convention has a basis of
visibility at a point just East of IDL, and is born before the day
begins at IDL.
The
selection of the 12:00 noon GMT as the time of conjunction is based on
research that was done by astronomers who developed methods to calculate
the sightability of the waxing crescent with high precision.
Astronomers
can today calculate the first sighting of the new moon using the
q-parameter method, one of he most sophisticated methods for calculating
the birth of the new crescent moon. The method, developed by B. D.
Yallop of the Council of the Central Laboratory of Research Councils
(CCLRC), United Kingdom, combines theoretical and empirical research to
produce precise predictions.
The
q-parameter method synthesizes major research on first visibility of
the new crescent moon. It employs the Indian method used in producing
the annual Indian Astronomical Ephemeris, F. Bruin’s method for
calculating the best time for visibility, published in 1977, and the
work of Edward W. Maunder (1851-1928). It also uses B. E. Schaffer’s
analysis of empirical data collection.
The
method uses a single test parameter, the q-parameter, to predict the
first sighting of the new crescent moon. The parameter “q” is calculated
at the best time for making the observation of the waxing crescent from
the equation
q = (ARCV – (11.8371 – 6.3226 W’ + 0.7319 W’2 – 0.1018 W’3))/10
ARCV (the Arc of Vision) is
the geocentric difference in altitude between the center of the sun and
the center of the moon for a given latitude and longitude, ignoring the
effects of refraction.
W’ is the topocentric width of the crescent, and is calculated from the equations
W’ = SD’ (1 – cos ARCL)
SD’ = SD (1 + sin h sin p)
SD = 0.27245 p
SD’ = SD (1 + sin h sin p)
SD = 0.27245 p
Whereby SD is the semi-diameter of the moon, ARCL (Arc of Light)
is the angle subtended at the center of the earth by the center of the
sun and the center of the moon, p is the parallax of the moon, and h is
the geocentric altitude of the moon.
The best time of the waxing crescent observation, Tb, is calculated from the equation
Tb = (5 Ts + 4 Tm)/9 = Ts + 4/9 Lag
Whereby Ts is the time of sunset, Tm is the time of moonset, and Lag is the time from sunset to moonset.
Yallop
empirically calibrates “q” by applying its resulting value to a
standard set of 295 first sightings of the new crescent moon that cover
the period 1859 to 1996. He, further, contrasts actual observations with
predictions based on q-test, and the results reaffirm the reliability
of the calculation.
The
results also help construct six ranges for the parameter “q” that
inform us as to when observation is possible with the unaided eye, and
when there is a need to use optical aid, such as binoculars or
telescopes
.
Criterion
|
Range
|
Visibility Type
|
A
|
············· q > +0.216
|
Easily visible – ARCL ≥ 12 degrees
|
B
|
+0.261· ≥ q > -0.014
|
Visible under perfect climate conditions
|
C
|
-0.014· ≥ q > -0.160
|
May need optical aid to find the crescent
|
D
|
-0.160· ≥ q > -0.232
|
Will need optical aid to find the crescent
|
E
|
-0.232· ≥ q > -0.293
|
Not visible with telescope – ARCL ≤ 8.5 degree
|
F
|
-0.293· ≥ q
|
Not visible – Below Danjon limit or ARCL ≤ 8 degree
|
FCNA
has decided that Muslims are required to use all tools available to
them to investigate the birth of the moon, and therefore consider the
q-test to be positive when it falls in the ranges A through D, a
condition that corresponds to ARCL > 8.5 degrees.
For
detailed discussion of the q-parameter method, see B. D. Yallop, “A
Method for Predicting the First Sighting of the New Crescent Moon,”
Nautical Almanac Office Technical Note No. 69, Council for the Central
Laboratory of the Research Councils, June 1998:
http://www.crescentmoonwatch.org/download/NAOTN69.pdf, accessed on November 16, 2006.
COMMENTS: (6 responses)
Bismillaah Walhamdulillaah WasSalaatu WasSalaam Ala Rasulillaah.
WaAlaykum AsSalaam w.r. w.b.
WaAlaykum AsSalaam w.r. w.b.
Br. Louay,
WHICH Calculations are you advocating ?
You mention in your article that:
Similarly,
the impact of elongation on the visibility of the new moon (more
accurately the waxing crescent) is estimated at 10 to 15 degrees.[20]
Unfortunately
ISNA/FC is using a criterion which is MUCH earlier than this,
apparently to match the erroneous Saudi dates. Could you influence them
to use your criterion instead Insha'Allaah ?
Further,
as you can see in my paper at www.jas.org.jo/hilaal website, there is
still a wide Zone of Uncertainty in Calculation models and for about 30%
of the occasions, calculations can NOT give you a definitive answer and
the only recourse is sighting.
Jazakum Allaahu Khayran. WasSalaam.
Salman Zafar Shaikh, Ph.D.
salman@baytuliman.org
s.shaikh@ieee.org
salman@baytuliman.org
s.shaikh@ieee.org
By Dr. Salman Shaikh, at November 13, 2006 3:13 PM·
We must keep pace!
Yes, we muslims have to keep pace with the advancement of science.
e.g.
The earlier scholars did not comprehend completely the ayaaths and
ahaadith related to embryology .Once Dr. Keith Moore explained in light
of science, then one could see the accuracy of the ayaaths and ahaadith.
By Nafees Khan, at November 14, 2006 12:21 PM·
Salaam alaikum Dr. Safi,
Thank
you for the efforts you make on behalf of the muslim community, and may
Allah SWT bless you and the leadership and members of ISNA and our
other islamic organizations and help to you continue your work.
I
have to say that your argument leaves out the third alternative, which
most scholars who disagree with the Fiqh Council's decisions agree on,
and which has been the practice through the ages. It is perfectly
acceptable to use calculation to establish certainty, it is probably
incumbent on us to do so, but the moon should be seen.
The
Council's decision has not solved the problem of the disunity in the
community. It has further polarized the community and it smacks of
backpeddalling and cheap convenience.
I
think the council and our muslim organizations would make greater
stride towards achieving unity on this issue if they focused on
educating our local imans and community leaders of the importance of
using astronomical calculations to establish certainty in moon sighting.
That way we would not have this travesty of communities and countries
sighting the moon before it is born or when it is impossible to see due
to geography or age. We would also be able to obey Allah and his
messenger and actually see the moon.
To
be a muslim is such a tremendous blessing, there is nothing more
important, and if we have to sacrifice a day from work or school or make
some kind of adjustment to perform our religous obligations correctly,
it is ok. It is more than worth it. I say this as someone who was once
not muslim. Also my experience is that where ever I have worked, when I
requested in a non confrontational manner, space to pray, time off for
eid etc. whether in someones office or a conference room, or even now
when I close my own office door to pray, my collegues are overwhelmingly
understanding, accommodating, and respectful.
I
have also noticed that when muslims or other people are unwilling to
sacrifice for or play down their religous obligations, they lose the
respect of their peers and are viewed as wishy-washy.
Wa salaam
Sr. Iman
By Iman Jones, at November 16, 2006 8:02 AM·
Salam
Why
are we going to this great ordeal to calculate moon sighting and
divided the Muslim more than what they are divided, when Allah and his
Prophet make it easy and clear for us as believers establishing the fast
on the sighting the moon and break the fast on sighting the moon if
it’s difficult to see the due to rain or clouds complete thirty day and
then brak the fast.
By Ali, at November 16, 2006 8:14 AM·
Hello,
Regarding
the moon debate, astronomic calculations is definately the way forward.
America is the ideal place to start especially with millions of
disparate muslims in different professions etc making life easier.
Muslims find it hard to contribute to Western society without bothering
about issues such as the New Moon.
Anyhow, my concern is that this year the astronomers got it wrong.
Ramadhan cannot have started on Saturday..it was too early.
I have read an article in my mosque and a mullah did a speech when he made it clear Ramadhan started on Sunday.
There is also plenty of other stuff on the Internet saying the Saudis messed up with their pre-planned calendar.
The thing is apparently it takes at least 25-30 hours after the new moon is born for it to be sightable with the naked eye.
Critics claim the astronomers are taking the natural way out of a tested Islamic system for centuries.
I
feel that Astronomy is fine for progressive muslims in the West but
will mistakes such as this year be prevented in the future?
Farooq
By farooq, at November 16, 2006 8:18 AM·
Unity Amongst Muslims Must Given Given Utmost Priority
I
personally feel utmost priority must be given to unite all Muslims
irrespective of geographical bondaries to up hold Islam. Only through
total unity we Muslims can over come threats from the aggressors who are
massacaring Muslims throughout the world under all kinds of pretexts.
Salam
By M. Ali, at November 16, 2006 7:47 PM
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